Category: The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years

This is an excerpt from “The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years: Volume I” published by Lost Art Press. 

It may interest readers to know that the best twist-turned legs are still a combination of turning and carving, and that when they were first made in the 17th century the lathe played a quite secondary part in the manufacture. In this article we are going to assume that you have no lathe at all and are going to rely upon normal hand woodworking tools plus one or two carver’s gouges. Even the last-named are not essential, but are certainly a great convenience.

Rounding the Wood. Prepare your wood in the form of a square as in Fig. 3, and mark in the centres at both ends with the gauge. Continue the lines along the length of the wood as shown, using a pencil. Mark in circles at the ends, using dividers, and plane off the corners so that the square is reduced to an octagon as in Fig. 4. Finally take off the remaining corners, so rounding it, leaving the pencil lines untouched.

Pitch. We have now the pitch and depth of the twist to consider. When a nut is revolved upon a bolt it rises by a certain amount at each complete revolution. That is its pitch, and a similar idea applies in a twist leg. Glance at A, Fig. 2. The rounded part of the twist at the top of the arrow passes spiralwise round the leg and when it reaches a point vertically beneath it has completed one revolution, and the distance down it has travelled is the pitch. There is no definite ruling about it, but generally the pitch is made to equal the diameter of the wood as in the present example. You can vary it, however, by way of experiment if you prefer.

Now for depth. The hollowed-out groove of the spiral can be cut in so deeply that it passes more than halfway through the wood, as at B, Fig. 2. This would be graceful enough, but would have little strength and would so be impracticable for most jobs. On the other hand, it could be shallow as at C, in which case it would appear as little more than an indeterminate ripple along the surface. Obviously something between the two is needed, and you can take into account the work the leg is expected to do. For instance, a heavy chair or table leg would have to be shallower than a spindle which carries no weight. This depth, by the way, does not affect the pitch.

Marking the Spiral. We will assume that the pitch is to equal the diameter, and the next step must be to make a series of rings around the leg, their distance apart equalling the pitch. Thus, assuming the diameter to be 11∕2 ins., the distance between AB, BC, etc., (Fig. 5) will be 11∕2 ins. The rings are easily drawn by wrapping a piece of thin card with a straight edge around the wood as shown.

To mark the spiral, take a length of thin card having one edge perfectly straight and, holding the true edge at the point A, wrap it spiral-wise around the leg, adjusting the position so that it cuts the point B, then C, and so on as in Fig. 6. A drawing-pin can be used to hold the end temporarily. Run a pencil around the straight edge so marking in the centre of the rounded or high part of the twist.

Now turn to Fig. 5. You will see that AB, BC, etc. are divided into quarters, 1, 2, 3. Actually only the points 1, 3 are needed, but 2 is marked in because it is convenient to divide up into halves first. Using the length of thin card again, wrap it again round the leg to pass through the points 1-1, etc., thus being parallel with the first line. Repeat the process, this time making the line cut the points 3-3, etc. You thus have three distinct spirals passing down the leg as in Fig. 7, and it is the wood between 1-3 that is to be hollowed out. It is shown shaded in Fig. 7, and it is in fact a good plan to scribble between these lines on the actual leg so that there is no question as to what is to be cut away.

Incidentally, we may note that it is always as well to have a hollow at both ends of the spiral as the latter can then die out naturally. Hence the rings XY at the ends in Fig. 5.

Cutting the Groove. A carver’s V tool is convenient for the preliminary cutting out (see A, Fig. 8), but a carver’s gouge can be used throughout if preferred. Gradually deepen the cut until the sides line up with the pencil lines.

Of course, the direction of the cut will have to change during every stroke and it should be in alignment with the spiral the whole time. The best way of holding the work is in the bench vice, cutting away each exposed part of the groove, giving slight turn, then cutting the newly exposed part, and so on until the whole is completed.

The gouge follows as at B, Fig. 8, care being taken to make the depth as equal as possible throughout. The sides should slope outwards slightly as at B. At all events avoid undercutting as at C. Once again let the gouge follow the line of the spiral.

Finishing the Rounds. Using either chisel or flat gouge, take off the corners now as in Fig. 9. You will find that one side will cut easily; the wood will have to be reversed for the other to be done. Working in this way you will find that the work will aproximate roughly to the finished shape.

To take out chisel and gouge marks a large round or a half-round file is used.

If a compound movement is adopted the high parts will automatically be taken out. The flat side of the file can be used for the rounded parts. Rest the work just above the vice as in Fig. 10, so that it can be revolved with the left hand whilst the file is used. Note from Fig. 1 how at the ends the round diminishes into the circular hollow.

Glasspaper is used finally, and it is essential that this is thorough. A shaped rubber can be used, but the fingers are also handy. Follow round the course of the spiral using first Middle 2 grade, then finer until you complete with No. 0. In this way you will finish with a beautifully smooth surface.

— MB

This is an excerpt from “The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years: Volume II” published by Lost Art Press.

Although the five-panelled door described in this article may interest only a small section of our readers, the construction is applicable to most other panelled doors. With small doors, such as are used in cabinets and cupboards, stub tenons would be employed, that is to say the tenons would not be taken right through the stiles

Before commencing work on a door such as that shown in Fig. 1, the careful worker will prepare a “rod,” (Fig. 2). This comprises a clean, unwarped board on which are set out vertical and cross sections of the door in full size. A rod is very useful since the work can be laid on it and the various dimensions quickly marked off.

Stiles. In preparing the stuff for the stiles, it is imperative that the edges should be square and the faces out of winding. If only one stile or rail is slightly twisted it will cause the whole door to wind—a defect that cannot be easily rectified. Assuming that the stuff has been trued up and the face sides and face edges marked, lay one of the stiles face downwards on the rod and strike up the sight lines for the rails on the face edge, the lines being made with a pencil. The stile is then rested with its face edge upwards and the mortises marked with pencil lines, allowing 1∕2 in. where necessary for the plough grooves.

These lines are now squared over to the back edge where further lines are squared across on either side of the mortises for the wedges. For hardwood, 1∕4 in. wedges will suffice, but for a softwood the wedges should be 3∕8 in. It is as well to arrange that the face-edge marks of the members of the frame should be towards the inside of the frame since this will enable the frame to be put together without having to mark the various joints. Having set out one stile, pair the other with it, placing the face edge marks upwards and the face side marks to the outside. It is as well to clamp the stiles together with G clamps while they are being marked out so that they will not shift. The lines marked on the first stile can be squared across the second stile and the setting out completed.

At this stage, lay each muntin in turn on a stile and mark the shoulders, the marking being done with the knife. The shoulder lines should be made a little full so that when the door is put together the shoulders will be hard up against the rails.

Rails. The middle rail is laid on the width rod and the sight lines of the stiles and muntins are marked and squared across, the shoulder lines for the tenons being knifed. This done, the mortises are set out, allowing 1∕2 in. for the plough grooves. The proportions of the tenons are indicated in Fig. 3. The other three rails are clamped together with the lock rail and the lines squared across, the shoulder lines being squared all round. In setting out the top and bottom rails, it should be arranged that the face edge marks will be towards the inside of the frame when assembled. A mortise gauge is now set to a chisel having a width approximating 1∕3 the thickness of the stuff, and the mortises and tenons gauged.

Care should be taken not to allow the gauge lines to go beyond the sight lines, otherwise they will show when the door is put together. The widths of the tenons should be gauged and the haunches marked with the knife.

Cutting the Tenons. It would seem that the work can be made easier by cutting out the haunches before sawing the tenons, since by so doing the saw cuts are made through a smaller width than otherwise would be the case. It will be apparent that if the haunches of the top and bottom rails are cut first, the side gauge lines will be cut away. This is of no great consequence to a skilled worker who will be able to cut the tenons having the end gauge lines and those on one edge to guide him, but the inexperienced worker will find it necessary to start sawing the tenons by making oblique cuts on either side and finally finishing each cut by sawing level. He will therefore need the gauge lines on both edges.

For one who is not accustomed to cutting tenons, it is as well to saw down for the tenons before cutting away for the haunches. The whole success of the job is dependent on cutting the tenons parallel with the face sides. If one is out, it is almost sure to put the frame in winding. As the mortises will be chopped out from both edges, in the case of the stiles, there should be little chance of their being out of parallel.

Testing the Joints. When the joints have been made, individual joints should be tested for levelness with a straightedge as shown in Fig. 4. It will also be found if any of the shoulders require easing. The frame can then be knocked together in the following order. First the muntins are fitted in the rails and these are stood on end and a stile is knocked on. The frame is then inverted and the other stile fitted. A test for winding can now be made and any faults corrected.

Fitting the Panels. Some workers prefer to cut the panels 1∕8 in. narrow in their length and breadth, but it is only necessary to make this allowance in the widths.

In gluing up, the muntins should be first clamped to the rails commencing with the lock rail. The stiles are then knocked on and clamps applied as shown in Fig. 5, the clamps being positioned as close to the tenons as possible. The wedges should be cut so that they pinch harder on the inside.

By so doing, the stiles will tend to move from the outside towards the shoulders when they shrink. The wedges of the frieze and bottom rail tenons should be driven in harder on one side than the other so that the muntins pinch the rails.

Mouldings. Typical door mouldings are shown in Fig. 6. The lower “planted in” moulding is fixed by bradding to the frame. If the mouldings are attached to the panels they will tend to draw away from the frame when the panels shrink. In order that the mouldings should make a good fit against the panels and frames, it is a good plan to clean up the square faces of the mouldings so that the corner angle is a shade greater than a right angle. This will ensure the mouldings coming hard up against the panels and frame.

— MB

This is an excerpt from “The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years: Volume III” published by Lost Art Press. 

The through dovetail is straightforward enough to cut, but sometimes there is a slight complication owing to there being a rebate at the edge, or because a mitre is desirable at the corner. There is nothing complicated about it, but it is easy to make a mistake if it has not been within your experience before.

Consider the case of a tray or drawer which is to have its corners through dovetailed together, but with a bottom which has to fit into a rebate. If you cut the normal simple dovetail you will end with the unfortunate result shown in Fig. 1. The rebate, being worked with the rebate plane, has necessarily to be taken right through, and this leaves a gap at the shoulder.

One way out of the difficulty is to set the dovetail in an extra amount to allow for the rebate depth, and make a square cut on the dovetailed piece (not on that with the pins) level with the rebate. The shoulder is then allowed a projection so that it reaches into the rebate as shown in Fig. 2. Note that no cut is needed on the pins since the rebating automatically removes the wood.

Alternatively the method in Fig. 3 can be followed. Here the top square cut level with the rebate is made as before, and the corresponding cut is made on the pins, but only down to the rebate. It is thus necessary to gauge in the extent of the rebate first so that the cut can be stopped short.

A third method is to use a mitre. This is of special value even when there is no rebate because it gives a neat finish; also because it enables the edges to be rounded over as in Fig. 4, or to be moulded. The joint when there is a rebate is similar to Fig. 4, but the depth of the mitre should equal that of the rebate. Note that there is a square cut level with the rebate on the dovetailed piece, and that this is transferred to that with the pins. It is not cut right through, however (see Fig. 4) but is only cut at the inside at 45 deg. (that is, as far down as the mitre). When cutting the mitre hold the saw on the waste side so that the line is just left in.

— Meghan B.

This is an excerpt from “The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years: Volume III” published by Lost Art Press.

This is a common fault even amongst experienced men who should know better. The wood between the dovetails is torn out, leaving an unsightly gash which robs the joint of much of its strength. In nine cases out of ten it is concealed when the joint is assembled, and this is probably the reason why so many do not take the trouble to avoid it. There are cases, however, when the blemish is seen, especially when the wood tears just below the surface. When the joint is levelled it is easily possible to plane into it with the result that an unsightly gash is disclosed. The fault is easily avoided as explained below.

Let us first consider the reason why the wood tears out in this way. There is first the downward chop short of the gauge line across the grain, as at (A), Fig. 2, followed by a horizontal cut which splits away the waste piece. Next is another chop right on the line and a second horizontal cut. So far no tearing out has taken place, yet it is this preliminary cut that is the cause of all the trouble. The wood is now reversed and a similar chop made, as at B. It is easy to see what happens. The shock of the blow causes the unsupported waste to bend over, and it tears out the fibres from the shoulder as shown. If the chisel happens to be blunt the defect is so much the worse. It is all due to the projecting waste piece having no support when the wood is reversed and the second cut made.

The remedy is simple. Begin by chopping down across the grain short of the gauge line as before, and then make a sloping cut to meet it as at (B); Fig. 3. Make a second cut a little nearer the gauge line followed by a second sloping cut, and finally right up to the line, as at C. Note that sloping cuts leave a short piece of uncut wood at the corner. On no account cut away the waste horizontally from the end. If now you reverse the wood and chop down, the grain will not tear out because the waste piece is supported. You can ease the work too by splitting away the waste at the end. It does not matter once the wood has been reversed.

It will be realised that in working in this way the removal of the wedge of wood enables the chisel to penetrate easily when the second chop is made closer to or right on the line. The idea is shown pictorially at (D), Fig. 3. In thick wood or extra hard wood it may be necessary to make several cuts, easing away a wedge of wood after each, as at (C), Fig. 3. The great point in avoiding tearing out, however, is to leave the wood untouched at the corner so that it is not forced downwards when the wood is reversed. The corner supports it, as shown in Fig. 4. Chopping in with the grain at the end after the wood has been reversed however enables the chisel to penetrate more easily.

If for any reason you have cut away the waste right to the end in the first chopping, you can still prevent tearing out by inserting a little wedge of wood beneath the overhanging waste as in Fig. 5. This gives support and prevents it from bending over under the force of the blows and so wrenching the fibres.

— Meghan B.

This is an excerpt from “The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years: Volume III” published by Lost Art Press.

Readers will recall that in January WOODWORKER we gave on page 8 an article “Wedging Mortise and Tenon Joints.” The following letter is from a reader who does not agree with the view expressed in it, and we publish it here as the subject is of considerable interest. Possibly readers may have other opinions about it, and if so we should welcome correspondence.

If your contributor would conduct the following experiment, he might be induced to modify his views concerning the gluing of a mortise and tenon joint as described in his article in last month’s WOODWORKER. Cut two or three inches from the end of a wide board. Repeat this, so that there are two pieces of exactly the same width and of a similar texture. Mark the width exactly on a board and soak both pieces in water until saturated. Measure this against the previous width. The wood will have expanded to a degree depending on its original water content.

Fix piece A firmly down on a board with handscrews at each end so that, although the centre is loose, the extreme edges cannot move during drying. Fix piece B to a board with handscrews all along its width so that it cannont move at any point during drying. Place both pieces in a warm atmosphere and leave to dry. In the process of drying piece A will split, but piece B will dry out without shrinkage, and will retain its new width permanently. Contrary to what might be expected, it will also be largely unaffected by small atmospheric changes. The cells of the wood seem to be permanently stretched. This experiment proves that wood will be largely impervious to atmospheric changes and will lose its customary tendency to shrink or swell, if it is held at every point.

To turn to the mortise and tenon joint, it will now be appreciated that if the whole of the sides of the tenon and the sides of the mortise are in contact and are glued, no shrinkage can take place at these points. It also follows that if part of the tenon and mortise is unglued, shrinkage and consequent movement will take place in the unglued portion, while the glued portion will remain stable if it can withstand the pull of the unglued portion so close to it. So far as strength alone is concerned, it is obvious that a completely glued joint must be stronger than one partly glued.

The conclusion seem to be: That there would be a loss of strength in a joint only partly glued.

That the unglued portion puts an added strain on the glued portion.

That a joint properly fitted and glued will not move at the shoulder any more than any other part of the joint.

— Meghan B.