Fig. 2. China cabinet door, late eighteenth century.
As a general classification some six general types of doors have been evolved over the years, though the variations on each are almost unlimited. Only a few can be illustrated here, but the reader should find the range useful when he comes to design or make up a piece of furniture.
The purpose of a door is clear and obvious enough, yet the variety of ways in which it has been made over the years is amazing. Consider, for instance, how far removed the delicate-traceried door in Fig. 2 is from the single slab oak door in Fig. 1, virile and spirited though the latter is. Of course, the two belong not only to different ages, but also to different techniques of construction. Obviously, too, the usage the two would have to face would be entirely different, the Gothic specimen standing up to everyday use, whereas the eighteenth-century door belongs to a cabinet intended for a drawing room, used only by genteel people.
Framed and panelled door. Second half seventeenth century. Shows several interesting features. The stiles are beaded with the scratch stock, but the beads run out at the rails so that the tenons have square shoulders. On the centre muntin no attempt is made at mitreing—indeed, there is no corresponding moulding on either rail. The difficulty is overcome by butting at the top and scribing.
At the outset it is interesting to consider the reasons for changes in construction, apart from the variations in form largely dictated by fashion. A single slab of wood is the simplest form but carries with it certain disadvantages, perhaps the chief of which is its liability to shrink. It might also cast, though both of these potential faults would be minimised by the use of quarter-cut timber. Possibly a more serious drawback is the limitation imposed by the widths in which timber is available. A wide door would have necessitated jointing and possibly using cross-battens at the back. A last undesirable feature is the single grain direction. Oak is a tough wood, but it does cleave easily, and such a door could easily break.
Framed door with turned spindles. First half seventeenth century. Frame is joined with mortice and tenon joints, the spindles having dowels turned at the ends. Turning appears to have been introduced in the mid sixteenth century and was quite commonplace in the following century. Most early turning was done on the pole lathe, the springy pole reversing the rotation after the power stroke.
It was no doubt a combination of these drawbacks that brought about the framed system of construction. The frame itself provided strength across width as well as height, the panel being more or less a filling. Being free to move in its grooves, there was no liability to split in the event of shrinkage, and the over-all width of the door could be increased—in fact it only needed centre muntins for the width to be increased ad lib.
Single slab oak door. First half sixteenth century. Pierced right through with Gothic tracery designs and with simple channelled moulding cut with the gouge. From a food cupboard. It is in a single piece of oak, and has suffered from woodworm, but is otherwise sound and has remained quite flat. It is the simplest form of door, but has certain constructional disadvantages (see photo [at top]).
The introduction of veneering made it desirable to have flush surfaces, and so the clamped and flush panelled door was used, not always with success owing to its liability to split due to resistance to shrinkage. Finally today we have veneered flush doors of multi-ply, lamin-board, or chipboard, in which many faults have been eliminated (though even here there are certain snags).
Framed and panelled oak door. Early seventeenth century. The craftsman has used the true mitre, and has overcome the problem of combining this with the grooving to contain the panels. Note how the mortice is set in at the inside since the tenon is automatically cut away by the grooving. At the same time the tenon has long-and-short shoulders because the front of the stile has to be cut back level with the moulding which is worked in the solid. The whole thing is assembled without glue, the joints being pegged. Mostly the oak was quarter-cut, sometimes being riven.
Framed door with raised panel. Second half seventeenth century. The main outer frame is grooved to hold the panels, but the moulding is separate and is mitred round. At the centre the main members are mitred and rebated to take the small raised panel, a bolection moulding being fitted to hold it. Sometimes quite elaborate patterns with mitred mouldings were made. One common pattern had diamond-shaped panels, in which case, of course, the mitre lines halved the over-all joining angle. Bolection mouldings giving a raised-panel effect were often used.
Flemish cabinet door. Seventeenth century. The moulding of the main framework is worked in the solid and is mitred at the corners. A characteristic feature is the wide use of channelling and flat recessed beads. Carving is in the solid, the background being cut back leaving the detail in shallow relief.
Long clockcase flush door. Late seventeenth century. Interesting in that it is an early example of veneering. The ends are clamped as shown and a strange feature is that the clamps are sometimes merely butted without any tongue. It seems a risky construction, but of course the veneer strengthens it considerably.
Clamped and veneered flush door. Second half of seventeenth century onwards. Most usual construction was of pine with clamped ends tongued on. The weakness was the liability of the main panel to shrink, and this showed itself eventually either in stress marks in the veneer towards the edges as shown here, or in cracks towards the centre. An alternative sometimes followed was to fit a flush panel in a framework, but there was still the potential danger of cracks or stress marks due to shrinkage.
Framed and veneered door. Early eighteenth century. Framework is veneered with walnut, and has an applied bolection moulding at the inner edge forming a rebate for the panel. Construction is rather unusual in that the top rail runs right through, and has resulted in slight stress marks, the consequence of shrinkage. The veneer is mitred at the corners, but was frequently butted, the joint lines vertical.
Barred door in mahogany. Mid-eighteenth century. The lattice moulding was usually of astragal section about 3/8 in. wide, the back grooved to fit over 1/8 in. bars. The glass was either beaded or puttied in. Note that the section of framework moulding is half that of the lattice. In all cases the mitre lines halve the over-all angle of the joining mouldings. Below are framework and moulding sections.
Framed door with fielded panel. Mid-eighteenth century. A costly door to make, especially by hand methods. A square-edged frame would be made first, and the inner shape bow sawn. The rebate would be largely chiselled. The scratch stock would be used for the moulding, though the carver would finish off the sharp inner corners. The fielding of the panel would again need the scratch stock.
Panelled and veneered door. Second half eighteenth century. Made in either of the two ways shown. The frame is assembled and the elliptical shape cut out. After veneering across the grain the small thumb mould is bent round and fixed, thus forming a rebate. The panel is veneered, dropped in from the back, and held with a bead.
Framed and panelled door. About 1770. The top curve is formed by making the top rail extra wide and packing the stiles locally, cutting to shape afterwards and veneering. The moulding would be either made up separately and applied, or worked in the solid. In the latter case the whole thing would have to be in mahogany, or a local edging of mahogany would be applied. Lower quadrant corners are set in separately.
Built-out door in mahogany. Second half eighteenth century. Here again the top is a wide rail cut to shape after assembling. The rebate is worked around the curve (that on the straight parts being done before gluing up). The panel is dropped in flush and the joint covered by a half-round sausage and berry mould. Tongues are used to hold the canted corners.
French type door, part gilt. Late eighteenth century. Rails are made wide enough to include the curves, and are put together with long-and-short shouldered joints, the stiles being rebated beforehand. After cutting the rails to shape the rebates are continued round the curves. The panels are dropped in and held by the face moulding which is mitred round. To form the carved details blocks are glued on and carved when in position, though in some cases the whole thing is carved in the solid, the groundwork being recessed.
Barred door in mahogany. Late eighteenth century. After assembling the framework, the bar mouldings are grooved and worked with the scratch stock at the shaped edge of a board, cut out, and assembled over a marked-out panel fitted to the door rebate. All mitre lines halve the over-all angle. Glazing bars are added at the back afterwards, being checked into the frame. Thin strong canvas glued to the joints in the bars strengthens them.
Framed door with raised panel. Early twentieth century. The framework is morticed and tenoned together, the inner edges being grooved to receive the tongues of the panel. The latter is grooved to enable the panel to project, and a wide rebate on the face gives a double stepped effect. The tenon is haunched, the end of the groove being thus filled in.
Raised and veneered door. About 1930. Here again the panel is raised and is tongued into the framework which is mitred and tongued. A wide, shallow chamfer is worked around the framework before assembly, and a corresponding local chamfer formed at each corner (see dotted lines). The panel corners are canted to line up with the chamfers.
Veneered flush door. Late eighteenth century onwards. Narrow straight-grained strips are glued side by side with heart sides alternately outwards and inwards. In best work this is counter-veneered across the grain both sides, and the face veneers put down lastly. In many ways this is the most reliable construction. Counter-veneers are frequently omitted, even in good class work.
Gothic oak door. Modern construction. The main framework is grooved to hold the panel, and the mould at the edge is stuck in the solid, the corners being finished with the mason’s mitre. To obviate extensive recessing, the tracery is applied, the whole fitting into the grooves in the framework. To avoid shrinkage complications the grain of the tracery is vertical and thus any movement in this is the same as that of the panel. Note that the groove in the framework is wide enough to take both panel and applied tracery.
Veneered flush door. Modern style. Both sides of the door should be veneered, and in the best work both sides are counter-veneered. Note that in any case the grain of the veneer which touches the groundwork is at right angles with the outer layer of the ply or laminboard. Unless this is done hair cracks may develop. Usually such a door has to be lipped. If this is done first it is concealed by the veneer. When done after veneering it shows but protects the edges of the veneer.
Framed and faced door. Modern. Usually the framework is dowelled and panels of plywood or hard board glued on, preferably on both sides. When the door is large it is advisable to bore holes through the framework so that the air contained in the spaces remains at equilibrium with the outside atmosphere. Such doors are usually used for kitchen fitments, etc., and are intended to be painted. The intermediate rails are desirable because otherwise the panels are liable to sink locally.
Folding-sliding doors. Modern. Invariably the flush-type door is used, the three members being hinged together as shown. Pivots are fixed top and bottom at the edge of the centre door, these sliding in grooves in the top and bottom. As it is difficult to fit the pivots at the extreme edge of the door, the width of the latter needs to be calculated carefully so that when opened fully it lies back flat with the door hinged to the cabinet side. The doors nowadays are usually veneered plywood or blockboard, in which case they are lipped.
Frameless sliding glass door. Modern. Although the glass can slide in grooves worked in the wood, it is more usual nowadays to use the special metal or plastic channelling made for the purpose—at any rate at the bottom. It is essential that the top grooves are double the depth of those below so that the doors can be lifted out.
Framed sliding door. Mostly twentieth century. Here modern practice is to use gliders beneath the door, these running on special fibre track. Bottom edge of door is grooved, but track does not engage with this. It is made to take the gliders and at the same time give clearance over the track. Top of door may slide in wide groove.
Bow-front door. Eighteenth century and onwards. Framework is rebated and moulded to receive the panel, an essential feature being that the stile rebates are parallel so that the panel can be inserted after assembly. Owing to the short grain of the rails, it is more satisfactory to use dowels than tenons as the last named would have little strength. An alternative is to fit loose tenons.
Serpentine doors. Eighteenth century and onwards. Here again the rebates have to be set out so that they are parallel, but usually there is no difficulty because the curves often cancel each other out. When curvature is only slight the panels are usually bent. Today all rebates and mouldings would be worked on the spindle moulder or with the electric router. For hand work the rebates would be part planed and part gouged and chiselled. For the mouldings the scratch stock would be used.
Bow flush door. Eighteenth century and onwards. Traditional construction was to cooper the doors and veneer both sides, preferably counter-veneering as shown. Present-day tendency is to laminate, gluing the layers between pairs of formers. The face veneer could be made up separately and put down with a curved caul, though care would have to be taken to ensure that the mitre lines coincide with the corners. Otherwise the centre panel could be laid, and the elliptical shape cut round the edge of a templet. Afterwards, the border is fitted up to it. To avoid a bad joint it is common to fit an inlay line round the edge of the ellipse.
French bombe door. Mostly eighteenth century. Expensive doors owing to the compound curvature. Setting out in both plan and elevation essential. By jointing pieces together and adapting their width according to their position, it is only necessary to level the joints to reveal the line at the fulness. At top and bottom a templet is used to show the shape. Some such procedure is essential as the doors are always made in pairs, and the two must obviously be alike. At the meeting edge another templet is used to mark the shape, but the blending of the curves becomes a matter of judgment. The work on each should be done in stages, and the two placed together in position for the final shaping. Parallel lines drawn horizontally enable further testing templets to be used in various positions, but the hand drawn lightly over the surface reveals any waviness. Veneering both sides follows, and invariably a built-up pattern is used to enable the veneer to be tailored to the curve. Reliable straight-grained wood is essential for the groundwork.
Tambour doors. Eighteenth century onwards. Consists of a series of narrow strips glued to canvas backing. Ends fit in grooves worked in top and bottom. As most tambours bend in one direction only it is necessary to cut a feeding channel at the back as shown by the dotted line, this being afterwards filled in. Strips may be of the same wood or in contrasting woods. In the former case they are often cut from a single board and assembled in same order, When a flat section is used (V), the joints are almost invisible. Narrow-bead sections may be worked in pairs (W), but wider ones need to be worked singly (X). When bending in both directions is necessary a similar section to either (Y) or (Z) is necessary, though only slight reverse bending is possible. This curvature is sometimes needed on serpentine shapes. It is necessary to assemble the strips on a jig as it is essential that they are put together square, otherwise curious complications can arise. For a bow-front cabinet the assembling jig would have to be correspondingly curved.
Chief types of doors. We show here in simplified form the main types, with all decorations and complications omitted. All doors are based on one of these, or combinations of them. 1. Slab or solid type. Has the advantage of simplicity but has some drawbacks such as liability to cast and to shrink leaving gap at closing edge. 2. Framed and panelled. Panel may be grooved or rebated in. Latter preferable for work to be french polished. Edge may be moulded or moulding may be applied. 3. Clamped. Suitable for flush, narrow doors only, and wood must be well seasoned. A combination of this and No. 2 is the framed and flush panelled type, the panel being tongued in and finishing level at the front. 4. Flush. Of laminboard or multi-ply. For polished work it is veneered both sides. Lipping may be added and an extra wide lipping fixed one side to take hinge screws. 5. Framed and faced. Used mainly for painted work. 6. Tambour. Useful alternatives for a wide, shallow space; also when hingeing would be impracticable.
1) The Workshop, including the design and construction of workbenches, tool chests and wall cabinets. There’s also an entire section devoted to “appliances,”which are workshop accessories such as shooting boards.
2) Furniture & its Details, includes a discussion of all the important Western furniture styles, including their construction, mouldings and metal hardware. This section also includes the construction drawings for many important and famous pieces of furniture examined by Charles H. Hayward during his tenure at The Woodworker magazine.
3) Odds & Sods. In addition to offering its readers practical information for the shop, The Woodworker also asked it subscribers to think about the craft and its place in modern society. We have included many of our favorite philosophical pieces in this final section.
Although a back may not call for the high finish that is necessary for, say, a cabinet door, it needs to be strongly made and of a type to suit the particular job. “Craftsman” discusses here some of the points to be considered when deciding just what kind of back a job is to have. —Ed.
I am afraid that many of us are inclined to let the backs of our cabinets take pot luck, as the saying goes. We make a job, say, in oak, possibly putting in oak drawer sides, and backs, but hesitate before going to the expense of oak for the back. The reason (or excuse, however you happen to look at it) is that it is seldom seen, has little or no wear to withstand, and that, since the cheap back answers the purpose just as well, it is clearly a waste to spend money on an expensive one.
Well, it is logical enough up to a point, and, providing that it is merely the material that is cheapened and not the method that is worsened, no great harm is done. In fact, there are many pieces of quite light woodwork in which a heavily built back seems almost out of place. Still, it is nice to have a piece of work in which nothing has been skimped, and the argument that a cheap back answers the purpose as well as a better one may not necessarily hold good, as we shall see later. The safe plan is to consider each piece on its merits, and give it the best back that it is worth.
BACKS OF OLD FURNITURE If one goes back into the past one comes across some curious anomalies. Many of the antiques of the Queen Anne and mahogany periods of which we think so highly had wretched backs. I myself spent a good many years in a repair shop, and I can speak feelingly of the hours I devoted to gluing strips of canvas across gaping splits in panels and across open knot holes. I have seen a mahogany chest of drawers of the Chippendale period with magnificent show work—serpentine shaped drawers, fine carving, and so on—with a back consisting of pieces of 1/4 in. pine nailed across. An extraordinary inconsistency. Apart from its having no strength, the whole thing was bound to shrink and split.
Yet when we come to that much abused period of Victoria, we find exactly the reverse. Probably no finer cabinet backs have ever been fitted into furniture. Open the door of one of those huge Victorian wardrobes (there are plenty of them knocking about in seaside boarding houses). You will find the mirror back more strongly made than many a modern wardrobe door, and the carcase back a finely panelled framework often with moulded stiles or flush panels.
Perhaps one reason why there has been a tendency to fit lighter backs since Victorian times (apart from the all-round cheapening of materials and construction) is the introduction of plywood. It seems such an obvious use for ply, a material which is free from shrinkage and obtainable in such large sizes. Undoubtedly it is perfectly suitable for the purpose, providing the carcase is strong in itself, and does not rely upon the back to make it rigid.
TYPES OF BACKS There are various considerations that affect the choice of a cabinet back. There is, for instance, the question of size. A single sheet of 3/16 in. plywood might make an excellent back for a little cupboard, say, 15 ins. high, but would obviously be absurd for a wardrobe. Apart from this, however, the first consideration should be: does the job rely upon the back for strength, or will the back serve merely to enclose a space? Fig. 1 shows the idea. At A the back is needed to prevent racketing and to stiffen the carcase generally. At B, however, the carcase is already strong, and only a light back is needed.
In the latter connection, of course, it is sometimes an advantage to build in the back with the carcase. Items such as sideboards are often made in this way. As a general rule, however, it is better to make the back separately, because it simplifies the subsequent fitting-up.
THE PANELLED BACK For a thoroughly strong back the panelled type is undoubtedly the most satisfactory. It is perfectly rigid and is free from all shrinkage complications. It should always be used for pieces such as cupboards with large, heavy doors, which are particularly liable to distortion unless provided with a stiff back.
Fig 2 shows the usual form. The whole thing is put together with mortise and tenon joints, and the panels are grooved in. One point to note is that if there is a shelf in the cupboard, the middle cross rail should be arranged opposite to it if possible. It may not always be practicable, of course, but the advantage is that it gives a level surface against which the back of the shelf can face (see B, Fig 3). If this is not done there will be gaps opposite the panels as shown at A.
The same difficulty sometimes occurs in a bookcase or similar item, but owing to the large number of shelves it is not practicable to arrange for many horizontal rails. The better plan is that in Fig 4, in which the panels are flush with the framework at the inside. It necessitates fairly thick panels, of course, but it gives a far neater result than cutting out the back edge of the shelf to fit.
MUNTIN BACKS A somewhat distant relative of the panelled back is the muntin type. It is nowhere near as strong, and is rather a doubtful member of the family. Like some relations, you can’t deny them (and they are useful sometimes), but you are a little shy about mentioning them in the best circles. It consists of a series of uprights, say 3/4 in. or 7/8 in. thick grooved at the edges to take thinner panels, as shown in Fig. 5. The ends of the muntins are cut away as shown inset, so that the panels can be fixed directly to the back of the carcase. Now, as the panels are generally about 9—10 ins. wide, and of deal, it is inevitable that a certain amount of shrinkage will take place. Consequently it is a mistake to drive in nails right across the width because the wood would split in the event of shrinkage. The better plan is that in Fig. 6 in which nails are driven in near the centre only. The edges extending into the muntin grooves are free so that they can draw out. Note that the heart side is outwards so that the free ends are pressed tightly against the carcase by the natural twisting tendency of the wood.
If, owing to the presence of a number of shelves, it is desirable for the back to be entirely flush on the inside, the muntins can be rebated instead of grooved as shown in Fig. 7. The beads along the rebates are not entirely decorative, but they serve to render the gaps less noticeable in the event of the panels shrinking. All these details about shrinkage apply only when solid wood is used, of course. In the case of plywood it does not matter.
Speaking of plywood brings us to another variation of the muntin back. In its simplest form the plywood back is nothing more than a sheet of plywood nailed or screwed in a rebate. For quite light jobs this is satisfactory enough, but to give a neat finish the back in Fig. 8 is better. A series of grooved and rounded horizontals is screwed on. They can be arranged level with the shelves as shown. The plywood panels fit between them in the grooves. For a flush effect the rails can be rebated instead of being grooved (see D).
FIG. 9. DRESSER BACK WITH TONGUED BOARDS FIXED DIRECTLY TO CARCASE.
DRESSER BACKS These are really in a class by themselves, for although they could be applied to pieces such as wardrobes, they are not so strong as a panelled back. One of two methods can be followed. That shown in Fig. 9 has the advantage of simplicity. The back is really a series of matched boards, tongued one into the other, with either a bead or a V worked at the joints. The boards are screwed or nailed directly to the top and shelves, and at the bottom to a rail specially fitted for the purpose. In the second method, Fig. 10, wide grooved rails are screwed at top and bottom and the matching fitted in the grooves. The wide rails give rigidity, the matching merely filling the space, so to speak. It can be either very thin as at A, or it can be stouter, the ends being tongued as at B.
FIG. 10. DRESSER BACK WITH TONGUED BOARD FITTING IN GROOVED RAILS.
Incidentally, a detail applying to all backs of any thickness is that the rebates in the ends should slope as shown at A, Fig. 11. If this is not done the projecting portion is liable to curl as shown at B.
FIG. 11. DETAIL APPLYING TO ALL BACKS. At A the rebate is cut at an angle. This avoids risk of the projecting lap curling away as shown at B.
What follows is a broad overview of historic styles, by Henry R. Birks, who was an instructor in cabinet work t Regent Street Polytechnic in London. He earned City and Guilds first-class honors in cabinet work. This article is from Vol. IV (which covers Furniture and the Workshop) of our compilation of “The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years.” It was first printed in The Woodworker in 1938.
Modern furniture fashions and current production methods have obscured from the young cabinet-maker much, if not all, of the wide traditional background of his craft.
At various periods during the history of this country, circumstances, and the skill of the craftsman, have combined to produce furniture and interior woodwork of distinctive styles, surviving examples of which are to be seen in museums and elsewhere. The artistic merit of much of this old work appeals to the taste of many people, who appreciate the use of its features in furniture and interiors, even in these days of novel design and ample choice.
Reference to the City and Guilds syllabus for cabinet-making shows that the student is required to have a good knowledge of these period styles and their characteristics, as well as an acquaintance with the related influential French designs.
It should be remembered that the City and Guilds examination questions are variously framed. For example, the characteristics of a period may be outlined and the sudent asked to supply the approximate dates thereof—or perhaps the name of the reigning monarch. Another type of question requires a description of the style or styles in vogue at a given date. The subject should, therefore, be studied from all possible angles, particular attention being given to the following:
Period dates: Period Characteristics.
Timbers and materials used: Reigning Monarchs.
Prominent personalities (Architects, Craftsmen, and Designers): Related French Styles.
The following list gives the approximate dates of the various periods. By memorising these the student will have at his disposal a convenient and logical framework for his enquiries.
ENGLISH PERIODS 1500-1603 Tudor. 1603-1649 Jacobean. 1649-1660 Cromwellian. 1702-1714 Queen Anne. 1714-1727 Early Georgian. 1660-1685 Charles II. 1689-1702 William and Mary 1745-1780 Chippendale. 1760-1792 Adam. 1760-1790 Hepplewhite. 1790-1810 Sheraton.
FRENCH STYLES 1589-1610 Henry IV. 1610-1643 Louis XIII. 1643-1715 Louis XIV. 1715-1774 Louis XV. 1774-1793 Louis XVI. 1799-1814 Empire.
It should perhaps be explained that the importance of the French styles lies in their influence upon the English craftsmen and designers, many of whom were obviously thus inspired.
GOTHIC Prior to the fifteenth century furniture, such as there was, seems to have been very primitive. It had little of independent style, but borrowed its characteristics from the ecclesiastical architecture of the time. Surviving examples are recognisable by these Gothic features.
It is in the work that was produced at the end of that century that evidences of changing style are noticeable: nevertheless, it is difficult to differentiate decisively between furniture of the later Gothic, and the work of early Tudor dates. English oak provided the timber for this early woodwork.
TUDOR The Tudor period was largely an expression of the Renaissance spirit. Beginning in Italy this “new birth” of the Arts spread across the European continent and finally became an inspiration for our own craftsmen. With the reign of Henry VIII partly advanced there was a noticeable development of style. Gothic characteristics persisted, but were enlivened with what was essentially Tudor treatment. Oak was still the exclusive material and embellishment took the form of freely used chip carving, and a limited use of rather primitive inlay.
The furniture itself consisted mainly of chests, coffers, stools, trestle tables, etc., all of which, in the early stages of the period, were simply and rudely made. With the advance of the times there was improved craftsmanship and elaboration of design. The carpenter was now able to produce such articles as the court cupboard and draw-leaf table—both of which were in evidence during the Elizabethan age. Heavy turned legs—of bulbous shape—with strongly carved designs, are a feature of this later period, and it was at this time that the huge four-poster bed became a prominent item of furniture in the wealthier houses. Haddon Hall and Hampton Court may be instanced as providing examples of Tudor craftsmanship.
JACOBEAN Jacobean furniture—product of the years which were spanned by the reigns of James I, Charles I, and the Cromwellian Commonwealth—is differentiated from the Tudor by its minor details rather than by any fundamental changes. In fact, individual pieces are very similar to those of Elizabethan design. Oak continued to be the wood from which the bulk of the work of this period was fashioned. Ornament, in addition to already familiar curved forms, consisted of split turnings, diamond shaped tablets, and simple frets. Mouldings were applied to outline geometric shapes on panels and elsewhere. This feature was commonly used in the embellishment of drawer fronts—drawers having now become a recognised addition to furniture construction. Thus the simple chest of earlier times became a chest of drawers. Turnings for legs, balusters and similar purposes were used liberally, but were of slighter design and more varied in detail than Tudor turnings.
RESTORATION The influence of Jacobean and Cromwellian design persisted through the reign of Charles II, as did also the use of oak. There were, however, certain changes. One of these was the appearance of the gate-leg table; a lighter alternative to the heavy tables of Tudor inspiration. Chairs became less severe in form, and often were carved and pierced. They had taller backs than the chairs of earlier date, to which caning was sometimes applied.
Another feature of the period was a free use of spiral or twist turnings. They were used for chair legs.
It was during the Restoration times that the use of walnut, as an alternative to the hitherto exclusively used oak, took place; and its employment became so general in the William and Mary era that this period is known as the “Age of Walnut.”
WILLIAM AND MARY Furniture styles now underwent considerable change. Dutch influence is a marked feature of the period. Such items of design as the smooth surfaced cabriole leg, carved cabriole knee, club foot, ball and claw foot, etc., characterise the period. Twisted legs and scrolled Flemish legs were used, and marquetery was introduced and applied to the decoration of table tops, doors and drawer fronts. Dutch inspiration was apparent in the Dutch chair; while the typical chair of the age was high backed and elaborately carved, or in some cases inlaid with designs of vases of flowers and birds, etc.
It was during this period that the renovation and alteration of Hampton Court Palace was undertaken. Sir Christopher Wren and Grinling Gibbons were intimately associated with this work, the latter being responsible for some of the fine carving which survives.
QUEEN ANNE The William and Mary tradition was carried forward into the reign of Queen Anne. Walnut displaced oak more or less completely. Marquetry at this period was freely and effectively used. Cabriole legs became a general feature and found a place in the designs of all kinds of furniture—the shell pattern carved upon the knee is typical, but later work displays more elaborate treatment. Chairs gained considerably in shapeliness and comfort, the latter being due to the development of upholstery as an established furniture craft.
Easy chairs, sofas, stools, and the Windsor chair are to be found among examples of the period.
EARLY GEORGIAN The early Georgian period is notable to the student of furniture first because it was the beginning of the mahogany tradition (about 1730), and secondly because of the fine carving, with which the craftsmen of the time richly embellished both furniture and interior woodwork. The new wood was used not only for furniture but for the various interior needs also.
CHIPPENDALE Carved treatments of furniture and the use of mahogany continued with Chippendale, who, besides being a master of the carver’s art was also a skilful designer and draughtsman. The furniture which he produced was intended to have a wide appeal; it varied from pieces of comparative simplicity to the elaborately carved designs which are most often regarded as being representative of his style. His ideas were freely copied and adapted by his contemporaries in the furniture trade, and, no doubt, his book The Director was to some extent intended to serve this end.
Among Chippendale features were the ribbon designs for chair backs; the cabriole, ball and claw foot, the use of frets and fretted overlays and various carved mouldings. Chinese Chippendale furniture is of distinctive design and readily recognised. In much of the more elaborate work French influence is apparent.
ADAM Robert Adam, creator of the interior and furniture style that bears his name, was an architect who, through the medium of travel, had acquired a rich classical background for the inspiration of his work. A strong leaning towards unity in design and treatment caused him to undertake the planning of interiors and furniture for his buildings, thus the Adam style demonstrates a pronounced departure from Georgian tradition. An innovation which is attributed to Adam is the use of composition ornament, applied as a substitute for carving in the solid wood. He also designed furniture and interiors in which a painted finish and decoration was used. Among his artistic collaborators were Angelica Kauffman, Pergolisi, and Antonio Zucchi.
Typical ornamental details of the Adam style were festoons, swags, vases, drapery, and rams’ heads, etc., all of which were used with distinctive delicacy of treatment. Other features were cupids, caryatides, wreaths, and honeysuckle designs. Marquetry also was used.
HEPPLEWHITE Furniture of the Hepplewhite style is notable for its restrained ornamentation. By comparison with the typical Chippendale product Hepplewhite designs are inclined to severity, but lightness and elegance were obviously intended and ornament was subordinated to this end. Chair work of the period displays considerable merit, the clever use of novel designs in the backs—including the shield shape and the oval shape—being found in association with unusually satisfying lines in the individual chair as a whole. Practically every type of furniture was made in this style. Various bandings were inlaid into the Mahogany. Carving was used sparingly.
There were numerous small pieces intended for the use of the ladies of the day in parlour and boudoir. French influence is apparent, and is attributable to designs of Louis XV and XVI origin.
SHERATON Last of the eighteenth century designers — a contemporary of Hepplewhite — was Sheraton. There is much of similarity between the work of these two men. It is in chair work that Sheraton is perhaps most distinctive, his designs being characterised by a lowering of the height of the backs and a novelty of detail. The bulk of Sheraton style furniture was made of mahogany and inlays of satinwood, amboyna, box, and stained woods were used for decoration.
For this latter, such designs as festoons, fans, scrolls, and flowers were used, but such was the variety of this embellishment that it is difficult to particularise. Typical pieces are to be found in such categories as bureau bookcases, writing tables, sideboards, and china and other cabinets.
Both Sheraton and Hepplewhite, as well as Robert Adam, abandoned the use of the cabriole leg in favour of various tapered, turned, square, and shaped legs, usually of light design.
FIG. 1. SCREWDRIVER TYPES A. is the large London pattern. B The cabinet type. C. Ratchet screwdriver. D. Electrician’s pattern. E. Plane iron screwdriver.
The following is excerpted from Vol. II of “The Woodworker: The Charles H. Hayward Years: Techniques.” This book is chock-full of invaluable hand-tool technique instruction and tool knowledge…including finer points about screwdrivers. I didn’t know until I started working with nice hardware that the screwdriver mattered – it absolutely does.
– Fitz
There are many varieties of screwdrivers, some made for special jobs and others for general work, but from the woodworker’s point of view and disregarding for the moment such luxury tools as the spiral or the ratchet, there are two main patterns known as the London and the cabinet types respectively.
Actually there is little to choose between them. Screws can be put in equally well with either, so that it is largely a matter of personal preference. Actually the London is the more robust of the two so that it is a good plan, assuming that one is going to have two screwdrivers, to choose the London pattern for the large one and the cabinet for the other. The two types are shown at A and B, Fig. 1.
What are the best types and sizes of screwdrivers for the man who makes furniture? Well, he should have an absolute minimum of two, preferably three, and, better still, four. It is not just a matter of convenience. Remember that too big a tool only results in the slot of the screw becoming burred over; too small a one will probably result in the screwdriver being spoilt, and it will most likely prove impossible to drive in the screw. That is why so many are advisable.
The largest will have to deal with really heavy screws such as are required for main carcase work—12s, 14s, and 16s. A small one is useless for such work, and it must be long enough to enable both hands to be used with pressure and power. A blade length of 10 or 12 in. is advisable (see A, Fig. 1). This illustration shows the typical screwdriver handle, flat and wide, this enabling the hands to obtain a good grip and ample leverage.
For medium size screws such as might be used for larger cabinet backs and moderately heavy fixings—say, round about No. 8 gauge—the screwdriver at B is needed. The larger one at A would probably not fit the slot and would be too cumbersome in any case, and anything smaller would not give enough power. It has a blade length of 4 ins. The handle of this is of oval shape, but is machine turned instead of being plain circular turned with the sides flattened as at A. These cabinet screwdrivers invariably have handles of boxwood.
Cabinet hinges require screws of gauges varying from about 4 to 6. The majority are round about No. 5, and a screwdriver for this size is imperative. That at B is too large. We strongly advise the ratchet type shown at C. It is not always possible to have an assistant to hold a door whilst the screws are put in, and this means having to hold it with one hand. Thus only one hand is available for the screwdriver, and it is awkward to have to shift the position of the hand on the tool as each turn is made. Using the ratchet it is merely a matter of rocking the hand back and forth, the blade of the screwdriver remaining in the slot. The finger grip, too, is invaluable since the first few turns can be made with the finger and thumb, the hand remaining still. The overall length of C is 8 in.
Some fittings require screws for which this ratchet is too big. Small locks and hinges often need screws of 2 gauge. A common practice is to use a bradawl, but this is not very satisfactory. It takes the edge off the tool, and in any case is too soft for the job. Often enough it results in the slot being burred over. The electricians screwdriver (D) is just the thing. A fairly long spindle is desirable as it is sometimes necessary to reach into awkward places. The stout stubby screwdriver shown at E is not a necessity, but is shown here because it is a tool made exclusively for woodworkers. It is a plane iron screwdriver and is intended for the worker to keep handy for unscrewing the back iron of his planes when sharpening.
FIG. 2. GOOD AND BAD SHAPES
When you buy a screwdriver it may easily happen that the end is too thick for the work it has to do. This is a mistake because, although too thin a blade is a bad fault, a thick end will not allow it to enter the screw slot to the full extent. It should bed right down to the bottom because otherwise it is liable to ride out of the slot and so burr over the edges. An experienced man can tell by looking at the edge whether it is right, but a test is to try it in the smallest screw it is supposed to tackle.
You can generally use a fine file to thin down the end because the temper of a screwdriver is such that a file will just touch it. If made any harder it would be too brittle for its work. You can, however, always use the oilstone—in fact, it is a good idea to finish off with this to take out the deep marks left by the file. Don’t make the mistake of filing at too much of an angle. The slope should be as gradual as is consistent with strength (see A, Fig. 2). If it is bevelled too much as at B it will be liable to ride out of the screw slot.
Many screwdrivers have the fault of being too wide at the end. This means that the corners project from the sides of the screw and, in the case of a counter-sunk screw, are liable to dig into the wood and leave unsightly marks.
When we started on The Woodworker project more than a decade ago we didn’t intend to publish “Honest Labour.” The series was going to have four books that covered handwork: Vol. 1: Tools; Vol. 2: Techniques; Vol. 3: Joinery; and Vol. 4: The Shop & Furniture. But as we paged through every article from The Woodworker during the 30-year period, we kept getting stuck on the “Chips From the Chisel” column at the beginning of every issue.
These columns during the Hayward years are like nothing we’ve ever read in a woodworking magazine. They are filled with poetry, historical characters and observations on nature.
This column was first published in a 1936 issue of The Woodworker; it remains relevant today for woodworkers old and new.
Are you finding woodworking as easy as you thought? Or is your ardour being cooled by disappointment? If you have not encountered any serious set-back you are indeed fortunate. If you have, don’t worry; take heart—and the advice below.
Think It Out One thing is certain: that, even though the craft is a lifetime’s study, the application of a few simple principles will assuredly bring success in woodworking. In the first place, never start a job until you know precisely how you are going to do it. Pass its construction step by step through your mind, so that you may hit upon the snags and mentally smooth them out. Making full- size working drawings is part of this thought-before-doing process. It compels you to think out your construction. Besides, full-size drawings are an aid (sometimes an indispensable aid) to setting out, and you need all the aids you can get.
Be Thorough Don’t work hurriedly. Your very keenness may prompt you to rush, but to do so is fatal. Curb your desire to see the thing finished, and always concentrate intently upon the particular bit of the job you have in hand. The trueing up of work in preparation for setting-out may strike you as irksome, but it forms the foundation upon which you build. Therefore do it well. See that you have on every piece of wood a face side and edge, and that each piece is truly gauged and planed to width and thickness. Reject twisted stuff; if you use it, it will only give trouble later.
With your well-prepared material, you are well started and ready for setting-out. This is not the marking-time process it seems to be. Actually, during set-ting out, the work is going forward quite rapidly. You are indeed casting the die of the whole job. It is at this stage that your full-size drawing proves useful. Avoid the risk of relying too much on the rule, as this leads to inaccuracies, and when-ever possible apply your wood to the drawing, ticking off the points as need be. When two or more pieces are to be marked alike, set out one from the drawing, then cramp the others to it, and so mark them all. Door stiles and rails, for instance, should always be treated like this and never marked separately. Keep your pencil sharp, and always draw fine distinct lines, not thick ones. When set-ting out, always take care to arrange any necessary pairing of pieces.
Be Accurate In all you do be accurate. No measurement, no cut, no squaring, should be “near enough.” It must be right. For often one inaccuracy becomes the seed of others, and reproduces trouble as the work proceeds. Remember that the secret of the successful joint is to cut just on the waste side of the lines. If your joints do not fit right away, take your time and much care in making them fit, but tread warily; it is very easy to ruin a joint when fitting.
Unless your job is of the simplest, you may find yourself stuck over some point of construction or procedure, in which case put down your tools and think, or consult someone who knows. What-ever you do, re-start only when the way is clear. Look to the state of your tools. With a blunt chisel or gouge good work is impossible; and such a tool, because of its tendency to slip, is dangerous to use. Chisels and plane irons need sharpening much more frequently than you may think. Don’t spare your oil-stone. Rather err on the side of too frequent sharpening. The craftsman always does; and if this helps him, it will help you. It is wise to have your saws sharpened and set professionally. If properly done, they should need attention only rarely.
Clean Up Well Be particular about the contents of your glue-pot. Throw away stale glue that has been heated many times and has therefore deteriorated, and substitute fresh. Keep it at the consistency of paint, and don’t forget that, because of the evaporation of the water, glue is thickening all the time it is being heated. When thinning, use hot water. Do your glueing in a warm atmosphere, away from draughts, and be smart about it. Be liberal with the glue, but keep it from running and setting in places from which it will be difficult to remove.
Should cleaning up trouble you, bear this in mind: that every surface to be cleaned up must be levelled off (if need be) and made quite flat and more or less smooth with the jack plane or the jack and trying planes. Only on such a surface will a fine-cutting smoothing plane work.
Finally, don’t worry about an honest mistake. Ponder the reason for it and so learn from it. Progress at your own speed from simple job to something more difficult, but never force the pace. At the same time, be just as ambitious as your previous work warrants.
