Category: Historical Images

Given a choice between reading estate inventories or criminal records I go for the criminals. The carpenter above was found guilty in August of 1678 and his punishment was having ‘M’ branded on his thumb. If convicted of murder he would have been hanged. Life was not easy for the working class in the 17th century and punishment was harsh.

Before being taken to Tyburn the condemned spoke with an Ordinary (a member of the clergy) and a statement was entered into the official records.  Themes of Idleness, Excessive Drink, Swearing and Lude Company were often written into this final statement. Theft of even very small amounts could lead to execution.

May 1690 Execution at Tyburn:  Andrew Browne condemned for Felony and Burglary, he is Aged 30 years, was born in Shrop shire, and bred a Carpenter. He followed that Employment Three Years in Red-Lyon-Fields. But leaving his Trade, and taking to an Idle Life, he fell into Evil Company, and thereby Committed the foresaid Crime. He said, that he had been guilty of swearing and excessive Drinking, of which, he now Repents.

Apprentices seldom had an easy life and there are many accounts of runaways and other trouble.

October 1718 Execution at Tyburn:  Henry Abbott, condemned for Burglary in breaking the House of Mr. Jonathan Jones, and stealing then 5 Silver-Spoons, a Silver-Cup and other Plate and Goods. He said he was 19 Years of Age…That he was bound Appentice to a Carpenter in White-Chapel, with whom he had been two Years, he left him, upon the account of his great Severity to him and his Hastiness in giving him Blows on the Head, and anywhere else he could hit…That as soon as he had left him, he went to serve another Carpenter, who was to maintain him for his Work till he had serv’d out the Remainder of his Time, which was five Years; but of those…he had not serv’d above two when he committed the Fact he now stood condemn’d for; which he confess’d, but said it was his first, and would be his last, if he should live never so long.

May 1728 Execution at Tyburn:  George Gale alias Kiddy George, about 17 Years of Age…born of Honest Parents who took care of his Education at School, and instructed him in the Christian Religion, and afterwards put him to a House Carpenter or Joyner, which Business he never followed; but was one of the most wicked, cross and disobedient Boys upon Earth; and married without his Parents Consent. He committed many Robberies, and was a constant Thief for a considerable Time…

Next, we have this fellow and an 18th century version of ‘Wanted!’: Advertisement for January 13, 1716:  Whereas James Goodman alias Footman, made his escape (with Irons on, by leaping over the Spikes of the Bail-Dock and the Rails) at the Sessions-House in the Old Bailey, on Saturday last, being the 14th Instant, about 6 in the Evening; he is about 37 Years of Age, 5 Foot 10 Inches high, much Pock-fretten, has many Freckles in his Face and Hands, a wide Mouth, down Look, speaks very broad, a reddish beard, but did wear a brown wig, a Carpenter by Trade, and lately live at Aylesbury…He was shot in the Nape of the Neck about a month since, when he was taken, which Wound is not yet well, and several small Pieces of his Scull taken out of his Wound. Whoever can discover the said Person, so that he be brought to Justice, shall receive Twenty Pounds reward from Bodenham Rowse Head Turnkey of Newgate.

Cabinetmakers were a different story and were usually the victims of a crime instead of the perpetrator.  In some cases we learn a bit more about them as in this example from March 1798:

John Westfield a cabinetmaker with Banner and Bruce’s Coachmakers in Long-Acre went to the country for six weeks. John Robinson, age 24, was a carpenter who worked for Westfield as a porter. While Westfield was away Robinson stole a pannel saw, carcase saw, sash saw, dove-tail saw, a stock, 27 bits and one saw pad. 

Westfield:  When I returned I found the chest broken open in the shop, and the articles in the indictment taken out; they have all been found since. In consequence of a suspicion…got a warrant, and went with the officer to search the prisoner’s lodgings; I found the small saw pad in his chest…

Westfield further testifies that his shop employs 7 to 9 men and sometimes Robinson did some work other than being a porter. Tools were sometimes lent to Robinson, but never the items that were stolen from the locked chest.

John Wray-Officer:  searched the prison’s lodgings…I found two boxes, a number of duplicates [pawnbroker tickets], some saws, one stock and a centre-bit.

William Crouch-Officer:  (Produces a stock and bits, and a saw)…I took them of a young woman who said they were her husband’s.

Cross-examination of Crouch:  Q. I believe you know it is no unusual thing, when poor people have duplicates that they sell them, and honest persons sometimes get possession of duplicates of things improperly come by?  A. It is very often the case. 

Westfield:  That is my saw, it is my own sharpening; the stock has my own name engraved upon it at length.

Cross-examination of Westfield:  Q. Do you mean to swear that this is your saw, merely because it is of your sharpening-do you sharpen differently from anybody else?  A. There is a great deal of difference in sharpening, the same as difference in handwriting.

Q. Because it is done in a more bungling way than common, perhaps?  A. I do not know but it is.  Q. Any young beginner might blunder in the same way?  A. There is as much difference as there is in handwriting.

John Robinson was found guilty of grand larceny and sentenced to six months confinement in Newgate Prison and fined 1s. A century earlier Robinson would have been condemned to death.

While some of the Old Bailey proceedings were very grim reading (execution for theft of a handkerchief in the 17th century), other cases brought to mind Horace Rumpole and his constant defense of the Timson crime clan…the window was already broken when I reached in and my hand happened to land on the silver plate.

— Suzanne Ellison

In Chris’ recent post, “We Are Equally Crappy,” a few readers asked about marriage marks, also known as a cabinetmaker’s triangle. Above is Monsieur Roubo’s version. Why have boring straight edges on your triangle when you can have curvy, sexy and French?

(Editor’s note: Roubo offers up about 10 of these useful marks in Plate 5. The full translation will be in the forthcoming “Roubo on Furniture.”)

Timber framers used a different marking and matching system. Roman numerals were most often used but there are other variations.

As European carpenters found their way to the New World they brought these marking systems with them. Examples can be seen in 17th and 18th century roof timbers, especially along the East Coast. The top example (right) is from Delaware, the bottom one is from England. I found only one example from South America.

The third kind of marking that might be found up in the rafters, around doors, windows and fireplaces is an apotropaios (meaning to turn away), also known as a witches mark.

In 17th centry Britain witchcraft was a real concern. In 1604 King James I wrote, “…for some they sayeth that being transformed in the likeness of a beast or fowl, they will come and pierce through whatsoever house or church, though all ordinary passages be closed, by whatsoever open air may enter in at.” I’m leaving out the bit about women being more frail and more susceptible to…nevermind.

Typical marks to ward off witches were two overlapped Vs (Virgin of Virgins), M (Virgin Mary), MR (Maria Regina), daisy circles, a series of circles and circles attached to letters. You might see all of these letters and symbols combined.

Researchers in Britain are cataloging these symbols in churches. Both the overlapping V and the M symbols have been found integrated into carvings on pews, choir stalls and misericords.

The next time you find yourself in an old building look closely and you might see some of these signatures of past woodworkers.

–Suzanne Ellison

Imagine it is late spring in 1898 and you are a 29-year-old Moravian-born priest traveling with a tribe of bedouins to a desolate spot to look at some wall paintings in an abandoned building. You walk in and see colorful frescoes covering the walls and ceilings. In astonishment you see a whirl of dancing girls, hunting scenes, musicians and more. After 40 minutes you have to rush out and dash off because an enemy tribe is approaching. When you return to Vienna to present your findings no one believes you. The few photos you took are lost. The painted scenes you saw don’t fit with their timelines or their ideas, you have no proof, you must be a liar.

The traveler was Alois Musil, known as Musa Rweili to his bedouin friends. He returned the following year and several years after that to document the bath house, the sole remaining structure of the desert citadel known as Qusayr’Amra. Built in 723-743 and located in present-day Jordan, Qusayr’Amra was one of 18 desert citadels built during the Umayyad period. The bath house is built in the Roman style (this region was previously in the Roman Empire) with a hydraulic water supply, a triple-vaulted caldarium and unique floor-to-ceiling frescoes.

And what frescoes! To put it mildly there are girls, girls and partially clothed girls. And in between there are hunting scenes, flora, cavorting fauna and on one vaulted ceiling 32 panels of carpenters, masons and blacksmiths.

Other surviving citadels had hunting scenes, but no girls, and certainly no display of working craftsmen. But if you think about it, why not? While your guests soak in the warm waters of the caldarium surrounded by these fantastic paintings you are impressing them with your power and wealth. Including the panels of craftsmen may seem an anomaly but is another indication of material wealth and resources. The citadel and bath works were built and decorated with the skills of a small army of carpenters, masons, blacksmiths and artists. Thanks to this 8th-century showmanship, and the persistence of Alois Musil, we have more pieces to add to the woodworking record.

 

 

 

 

The panels with the sawyers and the worker on the bench are the only woodworking panels still intact enough to discern details (likely due to their locations away from water leaks). Both panels have had some restoration work. The Roman workbench detail from Pompeii (dated about 660 years earlier) is included for comparison. The craftsmen panels don’t show any innovations in tools or techniques, rather a continuation of Roman-era traditions.

The frescoes have sustained damage from almost 1,300 years of exposure to weather, water leaks, camp fires, vandalism and unfortunate efforts at conservation. Musil, accompanied by artist Alphons Leopold Mielich, attempted to treat some the wall frescoes with chemicals causing pigments to fragment and fall off. While attempting to remove sections for transport to Vienna, other portions of frescoes were destroyed. The few sections that did make it to Europe are in museums in Vienna and Berlin. Qusayr’Amra was designated a UNESCO site in 1985 and current conservation efforts are under the direction of the World Monuments Fund.

In 1909 drawings made by Mielich were published in a two-volume folio and included reconstructions of the larger frescoes. The New York Public Library has one volume of the folio and a digital copy is available on line under the title Kusejr’Amra. I was able to match a few of the 1909-era drawings with more recent photographs.

— Suzanne Ellison

This mosaic fragment was found during the 2007-2009 excavations of a synagogue in Khirbet Wadi Hamam, a Roman-era settlement in the Lower Galilee area of Israel. The mosaic floor is dated to the late 3rd century to the early decades of the 4th century. Large areas of the mosaic were damaged in antiquity, probably by an earthquake, and the destroyed portions were filled with plaster. With only about 6 percent of the mosaic remaining it is noteworthy in the archaeology record as it features fragments of three figural scenes (despite strictures against such depictions) of craftsmen at a construction site, a battle scene and a maritime scene.

The excavations are under the direction of Dr. Uzi Leibner. After analysis he and his team think it is possible the construction scene is of the Temple of Solomon. I contacted Dr. Leibner to request higher resolution photos of the craftsmen and he graciously provided the photos below. Next, I asked Chris for his commentary on the tools and techniques depicted in the mosaic.

The largest fragment has a stand-alone tower in the foreground, carpenters at work at ground level and a scaffold in the background. The two levels of the scaffold are connected by a ladder. Two workers are carrying a stone block or other item on the scaffold; two others are on the ladder.

Chris’ comment: What strikes me as most interesting is how the tools bridge the gap between the Egyptian and Roman tool traditions. The craftsman with the adze is seated while using the tool, much like Egyptian woodworkers. To the right is a fellow holding a bowsaw over his head. The bowsaw, as best we know, is a Roman invention. Further to the right is a worker with a mallet and chisel, not sure what he is up to. (Dr. Leibner thinks they may be having a conversation or debate.) Below them is a very serious worker ripping a board with a bowsaw. He is using a Roman tool, but in a very Egyptian position, with the work straight upright. Unfortunately, we can’t see how he’s holding the board.

In the background a worker is mixing mortar; in the foreground a worker is dressing a stone block.

Chris’ comment: In this second fragment we see a woodworker with what is clearly a Roman-style hammer.

For comparison take a look at this carving from Ancient Egypt.

Note: Photos from Khirbet Wadi Hamam are courtesy of Uzi Leibner, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Photos by Gabi Laron.

— Suzanne Ellison